Current anti-trafficking debates are driven by emotionally expressed concerns and answered with rational argumentations about policy impacts in an environment of limited data availability and quality. Claims of a huge and increasing size of the phenomenon often remain undisputed in such debates. This is exemplified with a scene from the German election campaign. In such a situation, data presentation policies are of high importance. Two policies can be observed: a disclaimer policy, focusing on the deficiencies of the data, and an exaggeration policy, overstating trafficking data. The presentation of Eurostat trafficking data exemplifies this observation. While the report presents detailed data and includes a disclaimer indicating data limitations, the press release creates an impression of urgency. It refers to the omnipresence of trafficking, alarming trends and a predominance of women and children among the victims. These notions cannot be supported by the presented data. The combination of a disclaimer and exaggeration presentation policy is problematic, as it may encourage calls for simplistic policies that leave many victims of extreme exploitation and trafficking without support. This policy brief recommends a data presentation policy that makes the best possible statements on the basis of available data and qualitative knowledge, using comparative observations within data sets and beyond. Such a data presentation strategy increases the chances that policymakers learn from the past and implement policies for the benefit of victims of extreme forms of exploitation

The approach of states to managing immigration and asylum relies to a significant extent on the assignment of categories to people entering from abroad and residing in the country. Among these categories are regular migrant, labour migrant, irregular migrant, asylum seeker, refugee, unaccompanied child, smuggled migrant and trafficked person. Each of these categories has a specific definition in national law, and so every person migrating into a country fits into one of these categories – or at least that is how we understand migration and migration policies. There are indeed many reasons why this categorisation is necessary – each category has specific rights attached to it, and describes the situation that each person is in. Those of us working on migration policy also apply these categories in order to guide the scope of our work. However, in responding to mixed migration flows to Europe during the past few years, this has been a challenge. Some people are experts on human trafficking, while others are experts on asylum and refugees. Other people are experts on irregular migration or migrant smuggling, while still others are experts on children in a migration context. Yet to comprehend these migratory movements, it is necessary to understand legislation, policy and practice in all of these areas, because the adults and children who travelled along the Balkan and Mediterranean routes to European Union (EU) countries during the past three years did not fit neatly into just one of these categories. In fact most of them fell under a number of categories at once. What has been referred to as the “politics of labelling” in the area of mixed migration – the politically loaded use of certain terms to elicit particular responses to groups of people – is usually discussed in relation to the choice as to whether to use the term “migrant” or “refugee” (Whitham, 2017). This highlights the sometimes artificial distinctions embedded within the language of migration and the use of “language, definitions and categorisations” to determine the rights and treatment afforded to different people (Dolan, 2017). Acknowledging that multiple categories can be applied to individual people in this context is problematic, because states and service providers, as well as researchers and policy advisors, depend on the application of these categories in order to make sense of their work. This paper examines the challenges, and some possible ways forward, in dealing with the nexus between asylum, migration management and combatting human trafficking in mixed migration contexts in general.

Trafficking in human beings covers various forms of coercion and exploitation of women, men and children. Responses to trafficking have traditionally focused on combating the criminal networks involved in trafficking as well as protecting the human rights of victims. However, European countries are increasingly exploring ways to influence the demand for services or products involving the use of trafficked persons or for the trafficked persons themselves. DemandAT aims to understand the role of demand in the trafficking of human beings and to assess the impact and potential of demand-side measures to reduce trafficking, drawing on insights from related areas on regulating demand. DemandAT takes a comprehensive approach to investigating demand and demand-side policies in the context of trafficking. The research includes a strong theoretical and conceptual component through an examination of the concept of demand in trafficking from a historical and economic perspective. Regulatory approaches are studied in policy areas that address demand in illicit markets, to develop a better understanding of the impact that the different regulatory approaches can have on demand. Demand-side arguments in different fields of trafficking as well as demand-side policies of selected countries are examined, to provide a better understanding of the available policy options and impacts. Finally, the research also involves in-depth case studies both of the particular fields in which trafficking occurs (domestic work, prostitution, the globalised production of goods) and of particular policy approaches (law enforcement and campaigns). The overall goal is to develop a better understanding of demand and demand-factors in the context of designing measures and policies addressing all forms of trafficking in human beings.

The present paper aims to critically engage with the explanatory framework of demand as it is employed in various debates and to shed light on main demand-side arguments put forward in the context of various forms of trafficking in human beings. This paper delivers mainly a positive analysis, in the sense that it seeks to clarify ‘what is there’ – which arguments are used in which debates –, rather than to identify what action should be taken – which would subscribe to a normative analysis (Robert & Zeckhauser 2011). It is a stocktacking exercise of main demand-side arguments in debates on various types of trafficking in human beings. The paper critically engages with the normative side of demand-side arguments only in as much as this is required to reconstruct the arguments for a better understanding of policy measures proposed. The general argument identified in debates is that there is a demand that fosters exploitation related to trafficking in human beings. The paper aims to retrace the arguments used in debates on demand in particular areas of trafficking in human beings – for sexual exploitation, for labour exploitation, for the exploitation of begging, for illegal adoption, trafficking for forced and servile marriages and trafficking for the removal of organs – in order to better understand the assumptions behind demand-side arguments, the way demand is understood and contextualised and how it is considered relevant in addressing various types of trafficking in human beings. One of the main findings is that although ‘demand’ is mostly referred to in its economic understanding – the willingness and ability to purchase a good or a service – the way in which the notion of demand is being employed varies and is often inconsistent.

2004/68/JHA of 22 December 2003 on combating the sexual exploitation of children and child pornography; Council Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April 2004 on the residence permit issued to third-country nationals who are victims of trafficking in human beings or who have been the subject of an action to facilitate illegal immigration, who cooperate with the competent authorities. While the existing instruments oblige EU Member States to criminalise all possible acts that constitute Trafficking in Human Beings and to provide an adequate framework to protect victims of Trafficking in Human Beings as victims of crime, their transposition into domestic legislation lies with the Member States. Thus, besides the still-existing legislative gaps in compliance of national legislation with European standards, the elements determining Trafficking in Human Beings vary considerably across EU Member States. For the purpose of this study all elements that are in compliance with Council Framework Decisions and Directives determining trafficking in human beings on the respective national level constitute the basis for the assessment of the extent of the phenomenon.In addition, elements that go beyond the definition of the European instruments were taken into consideration.

The manual is produced in the framework of the Prague Process Migration Observatory implemented through the “Prague Process: Dialogue, Analyses and Training in Action” (PP DATA) initiative, funded by the European Union and implemented by ICMPD in its capacity of Prague Process Secretariat. PP DATA aims at sustaining and further enhancing the cooperation established in the area of migration and asylum between the countries of the European Union, the Schengen Area, the Eastern Partnership, the Western Balkans, Central Asia, Russia and Turkey. The goal of this manual is to guide its users in developing and delivering training sessions covering ten key areas concerning combating trafficking in human beings. The manual provides content and technical implementation information for each session, as well as brief instructions on the process of teaching and useful insights about adult learning. The manual is developed to serve the anti-trafficking stakeholders from the participating countries of Prague Process. The Manual is a practical guide that can be adapted to fit the training needs of the participants. It can be used for in-house trainings, delivered by professionals with a certain level of training experience to an audience with no or basic knowledge on the topic of trafficking in human beings, or it can also be used for training-of-trainers programmes. Having in mind the diversity of the human trafficking phenomenon across the Prague Process region and the specificities of the national anti-trafficking responses, the manual is designed in a way that can be also adapted to any country-specific context. The information for the manual was collected through desk research of the available handbooks and manuals on the topic of combating trafficking in human beings, adding the knowledge and expertise of ICMPD Anti-trafficking Programme.

The draft Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for Identification and Referral of Trafficked Persons in Lebanon have been elaborated in the framework of the project ‘’Training to Enhance Lebanese Anti-trafficking Effort (TELAE): Identification, Referral and Policy Responses’’ implemented by the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) and financially supported by the United States Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. The SOPs are carefully in line with human rights and international standards and policy developments. The SOPs are adapted to the national procedures and anti-trafficking legislation in Lebanon, Law Number 164 Punishment of the Crime of Trafficking in Persons, and are meant to build upon the existing national mechanisms and take them a step further towards more coordinated action. The draft document, divided into two Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) sections, was jointly developed and validated by the nominated focal points from the relevant governmental, non- governmental and international organizations in Lebanon. Each institution/organization nominated two representatives to participate in the elaboration of the SOPs as well as in the other activities of the project.

The Strength to Carry On: Resilience and Vulnerability to Trafficking among People Travelling along Migration Routes to Europe analyses the incidence of human trafficking among people travelling along migration routes to Europe; factors of resilience to trafficking and other abuses; and factors of vulnerability to trafficking and other abuses. The study covers the Eastern Mediterranean, Balkan and Central Mediterranean migration routes.The research findings indicate the significance of the context of the migration routes for people’s experiences: the geography of the routes; and the policies and practices applied during different periods in different places. Due to the lack of legal channels for migrating and seeking asylum, and the lack of possibilities to transit regularly along the routes, almost everyone who travels the routes uses migrant smuggling services, at least at some point. Migration policies and responses to the situation on the migration routes have focused largely on combating irregular movement and are characterised by border restrictions and fortification, which significantly increases the vulnerabilities of people using the routes. 69 potential trafficking cases were identified in the course of the research, and 14 cases of deprivation of liberty for extortion. A minority of these cases were officially identified by the authorities. People on the move are trafficked for sexual exploitation, labour exploitation and forced migrant smuggling. The study also shows that deprivation of liberty for extortion involves the abuse of a person’s rights in order to obtain financial or material benefits. The main modus operandi of traffickers in the context of the migration routes, regardless of whether or not they also provide migrant smuggling services, is abusing people’s position of vulnerability. This vulnerability arises from their need to use, and to pay for, migrant smuggling, due to the lack of alternatives for regular travel.

This Note provides guidance for the assistance, protection and humanitarian diplomacy activities of Red Cross and Red Crescent National Societies in the Asia Pacific region in the context of labour migration and trafficking. The Note builds upon existing International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement policies, guidance and commitments relevant to migration and displacement. The Note also contains a collection of case studies of existing initiatives by Asia Pacific National Societies, demonstrating the strength and diversity of National Societies’ activities related to labour migration and trafficking. The Note is designed to support the existing initiatives of Asia Pacific National Societies, as well as provide guidance for those National Societies considering new initiatives in the context of labour migration and trafficking. The Note will be useful to National Societies across all departments - from leadership to migration, disaster management, health, shelter, Restoring Family Links (RFL), welfare and beyond.The note will also be useful for representatives from governments, regional institutions, academia, civil society organisations and United Nations (UN) agencies to deepen their understanding of the core mandate and strengths of Asia Pacific Red Cross and Red Crescent National Societies in the context of labour migration and trafficking.

A practical guideline for frontline workers